Merge branch 'master' into tsallis_quantum

doc/source/api-reference/qibo.rst

@@ -1879,6 +1879,12 @@ Trace distance
     raised when using `cupy` backend.
 
 
+Hilbert-Schmidt inner product
+"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
+
+.. autofunction:: qibo.quantum_info.hilbert_schmidt_inner_product
+
+
 Hilbert-Schmidt distance
 """"""""""""""""""""""""
 

src/qibo/backends/__init__.py

@@ -231,8 +231,7 @@ def construct_backend(backend, **kwargs) -> Backend:
         # pylint: disable=unsupported-membership-test
         if provider not in e.msg:
             raise e
-        raise_error(
-            MissingBackend,
+        raise MissingBackend(
             f"The '{backend}' backends' provider is not available. Check that a Python "
             f"package named '{provider}' is installed, and it is exposing valid Qibo "
             "backends.",

src/qibo/quantum_info/entropies.py

@@ -666,7 +666,7 @@ def mutual_information(
     of state :math:`\\rho` is given by
 
     .. math::
-        I(\\rho}) \\equiv S(\\rho_{A}) + S(\\rho_{B}) - S(\\rho) \\, ,
+        I(\\rho) \\equiv S(\\rho_{A}) + S(\\rho_{B}) - S(\\rho) \\, ,
 
     where :math:`B` is the remaining qubits that are not in partition :math:`A`,
     and :math:`S(\\cdot)` is the :func:`qibo.quantum_info.von_neumann_entropy`.

src/qibo/quantum_info/metrics.py

@@ -134,12 +134,41 @@ def trace_distance(state, target, check_hermitian: bool = False, backend=None):
     return distance
 
 
+def hilbert_schmidt_inner_product(operator_A, operator_B, backend=None):
+    """Calculate the Hilbert-Schmidt inner product between two operators.
+
+    Given two operators :math:`A, \\, B \\in \\mathcal{H}`, the Hilbert-Schmidt
+    inner product between the two is given by
+
+    .. math::
+        \\braket{A, \\, B}_{\\text{HS}} = \\text{tr}\\left(A^{\\dagger} \\, B\\right) \\, .
+
+    Args:
+        operator_A (ndarray): operator :math:`A`.
+        operator_B (ndarray): operator :math:`B`.
+        backend (:class:`qibo.backends.abstract.Backend`, optional): backend to be used
+            in the execution. If ``None``, it uses :class:`qibo.backends.GlobalBackend`.
+            Defaults to ``None``.
+
+    Returns:
+        float: Hilbert-Schmidt inner product :math:`\\braket{A, \\, B}_{\\text{HS}}`.
+    """
+    backend = _check_backend(backend)
+
+    inner_product = backend.np.trace(backend.np.conj(operator_A.T) @ operator_B)
+
+    return backend.np.real(inner_product)
+
+
 def hilbert_schmidt_distance(state, target, backend=None):
-    """Hilbert-Schmidt distance between two quantum states:
+    """Calculate the Hilbert-Schmidt distance between two quantum states:
 
     .. math::
-        \\langle \\rho \\, , \\, \\sigma \\rangle_{\\text{HS}} =
-            \\text{tr}\\left((\\rho - \\sigma)^{2}\\right)
+        \\braket{\\rho - \\sigma, \\, \\rho - \\sigma}_{\\text{HS}} =
+            \\text{tr}\\left((\\rho - \\sigma)^{2}\\right) \\, ,
+
+    where :math:`\\braket{\\cdot, \\, \\cdot}_{\\text{HS}}` is the
+    :func:`qibo.quantum_info.hilbert_schmidt_inner_product`.
 
     Args:
         state (ndarray): statevector or density matrix.
@@ -151,6 +180,11 @@ def hilbert_schmidt_distance(state, target, backend=None):
     Returns:
         float: Hilbert-Schmidt distance between ``state`` :math:`\\rho`
         and ``target`` :math:`\\sigma`.
+
+    References:
+        1. P. J. Coles, M. Cerezo, and L. Cincio, *Strong bound between trace distance
+        and Hilbert-Schmidt distance for low-rank states*, `Phys. Rev. A 100, 022103
+        <https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevA.100.022103>`_ (2019).
     """
     backend = _check_backend(backend)
 
@@ -171,10 +205,9 @@ def hilbert_schmidt_distance(state, target, backend=None):
         state = backend.np.outer(backend.np.conj(state), state)
         target = backend.np.outer(backend.np.conj(target), target)
 
-    distance = backend.np.real(backend.np.trace((state - target) ** 2))
-    distance = float(distance)
+    difference = state - target
 
-    return distance
+    return hilbert_schmidt_inner_product(difference, difference, backend=backend)
 
 
 def fidelity(state, target, check_hermitian: bool = False, backend=None):

src/qibo/quantum_info/superoperator_transformations.py

@@ -20,16 +20,18 @@ def vectorization(state, order: str = "row", backend=None):
     If ``order="row"``, then:
 
     .. math::
-        |\\rho) = \\sum_{k, l} \\, \\rho_{kl} \\, \\ket{k} \\otimes \\ket{l}
+        |\\rho) = \\sum_{k, l} \\, \\rho_{kl} \\, \\ket{k} \\otimes \\ket{l} \\, .
 
     If ``order="column"``, then:
 
     .. math::
-        |\\rho) = \\sum_{k, l} \\, \\rho_{kl} \\, \\ket{l} \\otimes \\ket{k}
+        |\\rho) = \\sum_{k, l} \\, \\rho_{kl} \\, \\ket{l} \\otimes \\ket{k} \\, .
+
+    If ``state`` is a 3-dimensional tensor, it is interpreted as a batch of states.
 
-    If ``state`` is a 3-dimensional tensor it is interpreted as a batch of states.
     Args:
-        state: statevector, density matrix, an array of statevectors, or an array of density matrices.
+        state (ndarray): statevector, density matrix, an array of statevectors,
+            or an array of density matrices.
         order (str, optional): If ``"row"``, vectorization is performed
             row-wise. If ``"column"``, vectorization is performed
             column-wise. If ``"system"``, a block-vectorization is