+
+Welcome to Asynchronous Programming in Rust! If you're looking to start writing
+asynchronous Rust code, you've come to the right place. Whether you're building
+a web server, a database, or an operating system, this book will show you
+how to use Rust's asynchronous programming tools to get the most out of your
+hardware.
+
+This book aims to be a comprehensive, up-to-date guide to using Rust's async
+language features and libraries, appropriate for beginners and old hands alike.
+
+-
+
The early chapters provide an introduction to async programming in general,
+and to Rust's particular take on it.
+
+-
+
The middle chapters discuss key utilities and control-flow tools you can use
+when writing async code, and describe best-practices for structuring libraries
+and applications to maximize performance and reusability.
+
+-
+
The last section of the book covers the broader async ecosystem, and provides
+a number of examples of how to accomplish common tasks.
+
+
+With that out of the way, let's explore the exciting world of Asynchronous
+Programming in Rust!
+
+We all love how Rust empowers us to write fast, safe software.
+But how does asynchronous programming fit into this vision?
+Asynchronous programming, or async for short, is a concurrent programming model
+supported by an increasing number of programming languages.
+It lets you run a large number of concurrent
+tasks on a small number of OS threads, while preserving much of the
+look and feel of ordinary synchronous programming, through the
+async/await syntax.
+
+Concurrent programming is less mature and "standardized" than
+regular, sequential programming. As a result, we express concurrency
+differently depending on which concurrent programming model
+the language is supporting.
+A brief overview of the most popular concurrency models can help
+you understand how asynchronous programming fits within the broader
+field of concurrent programming:
+
+- OS threads don't require any changes to the programming model,
+which makes it very easy to express concurrency. However, synchronizing
+between threads can be difficult, and the performance overhead is large.
+Thread pools can mitigate some of these costs, but not enough to support
+massive IO-bound workloads.
+- Event-driven programming, in conjunction with callbacks, can be very
+performant, but tends to result in a verbose, "non-linear" control flow.
+Data flow and error propagation is often hard to follow.
+- Coroutines, like threads, don't require changes to the programming model,
+which makes them easy to use. Like async, they can also support a large
+number of tasks. However, they abstract away low-level details that
+are important for systems programming and custom runtime implementors.
+- The actor model divides all concurrent computation into units called
+actors, which communicate through fallible message passing, much like
+in distributed systems. The actor model can be efficiently implemented, but it leaves
+many practical issues unanswered, such as flow control and retry logic.
+
+In summary, asynchronous programming allows highly performant implementations
+that are suitable for low-level languages like Rust, while providing
+most of the ergonomic benefits of threads and coroutines.
+
+Although asynchronous programming is supported in many languages, some
+details vary across implementations. Rust's implementation of async
+differs from most languages in a few ways:
+
+- Futures are inert in Rust and make progress only when polled. Dropping a
+future stops it from making further progress.
+- Async is zero-cost in Rust, which means that you only pay for what you use.
+Specifically, you can use async without heap allocations and dynamic dispatch,
+which is great for performance!
+This also lets you use async in constrained environments, such as embedded systems.
+- No built-in runtime is provided by Rust. Instead, runtimes are provided by
+community maintained crates.
+- Both single- and multithreaded runtimes are available in Rust, which have
+different strengths and weaknesses.
+
+
+The primary alternative to async in Rust is using OS threads, either
+directly through std::thread
+or indirectly through a thread pool.
+Migrating from threads to async or vice versa
+typically requires major refactoring work, both in terms of implementation and
+(if you are building a library) any exposed public interfaces. As such,
+picking the model that suits your needs early can save a lot of development time.
+OS threads are suitable for a small number of tasks, since threads come with
+CPU and memory overhead. Spawning and switching between threads
+is quite expensive as even idle threads consume system resources.
+A thread pool library can help mitigate some of these costs, but not all.
+However, threads let you reuse existing synchronous code without significant
+code changes—no particular programming model is required.
+In some operating systems, you can also change the priority of a thread,
+which is useful for drivers and other latency sensitive applications.
+Async provides significantly reduced CPU and memory
+overhead, especially for workloads with a
+large amount of IO-bound tasks, such as servers and databases.
+All else equal, you can have orders of magnitude more tasks than OS threads,
+because an async runtime uses a small amount of (expensive) threads to handle
+a large amount of (cheap) tasks.
+However, async Rust results in larger binary blobs due to the state
+machines generated from async functions and since each executable
+bundles an async runtime.
+On a last note, asynchronous programming is not better than threads,
+but different.
+If you don't need async for performance reasons, threads can often be
+the simpler alternative.
+
+In this example our goal is to download two web pages concurrently.
+In a typical threaded application we need to spawn threads
+to achieve concurrency:
+fn get_two_sites() {
+ // Spawn two threads to do work.
+ let thread_one = thread::spawn(|| download("https://www.foo.com"));
+ let thread_two = thread::spawn(|| download("https://www.bar.com"));
+
+ // Wait for both threads to complete.
+ thread_one.join().expect("thread one panicked");
+ thread_two.join().expect("thread two panicked");
+}
+However, downloading a web page is a small task; creating a thread
+for such a small amount of work is quite wasteful. For a larger application, it
+can easily become a bottleneck. In async Rust, we can run these tasks
+concurrently without extra threads:
+async fn get_two_sites_async() {
+ // Create two different "futures" which, when run to completion,
+ // will asynchronously download the webpages.
+ let future_one = download_async("https://www.foo.com");
+ let future_two = download_async("https://www.bar.com");
+
+ // Run both futures to completion at the same time.
+ join!(future_one, future_two);
+}
+Here, no extra threads are created. Additionally, all function calls are statically
+dispatched, and there are no heap allocations!
+However, we need to write the code to be asynchronous in the first place,
+which this book will help you achieve.
+
+On a last note, Rust doesn't force you to choose between threads and async.
+You can use both models within the same application, which can be
+useful when you have mixed threaded and async dependencies.
+In fact, you can even use a different concurrency model altogether,
+such as event-driven programming, as long as you find a library that
+implements it.
+
+Parts of async Rust are supported with the same stability guarantees as
+synchronous Rust. Other parts are still maturing and will change
+over time. With async Rust, you can expect:
+
+- Outstanding runtime performance for typical concurrent workloads.
+- More frequent interaction with advanced language features, such as lifetimes
+and pinning.
+- Some compatibility constraints, both between sync and async code, and between
+different async runtimes.
+- Higher maintenance burden, due to the ongoing evolution of async runtimes
+and language support.
+
+In short, async Rust is more difficult to use and can result in a higher
+maintenance burden than synchronous Rust,
+but gives you best-in-class performance in return.
+All areas of async Rust are constantly improving,
+so the impact of these issues will wear off over time.
+
+While asynchronous programming is supported by Rust itself,
+most async applications depend on functionality provided
+by community crates.
+As such, you need to rely on a mixture of
+language features and library support:
+
+- The most fundamental traits, types and functions, such as the
+
Future trait
+are provided by the standard library.
+- The
async/await syntax is supported directly by the Rust compiler.
+- Many utility types, macros and functions are provided by the
+
futures crate. They can be used in any async
+Rust application.
+- Execution of async code, IO and task spawning are provided by "async
+runtimes", such as Tokio and async-std. Most async applications, and some
+async crates, depend on a specific runtime. See
+"The Async Ecosystem" section for more
+details.
+
+Some language features you may be used to from synchronous Rust are not yet
+available in async Rust. Notably, Rust did not let you declare async
+functions in traits until 1.75.0 stable (and still has limitations on dynamic dispatch for those traits). Instead, you need to use workarounds to achieve the same
+result, which can be more verbose.
+
+For the most part, compiler- and runtime errors in async Rust work
+the same way as they have always done in Rust. There are a few
+noteworthy differences:
+
+Compilation errors in async Rust conform to the same high standards as
+synchronous Rust, but since async Rust often depends on more complex language
+features, such as lifetimes and pinning, you may encounter these types of
+errors more frequently.
+
+Whenever the compiler encounters an async function, it generates a state
+machine under the hood. Stack traces in async Rust typically contain details
+from these state machines, as well as function calls from
+the runtime. As such, interpreting stack traces can be a bit more involved than
+it would be in synchronous Rust.
+
+A few novel failure modes are possible in async Rust, for instance
+if you call a blocking function from an async context or if you implement
+the Future trait incorrectly. Such errors can silently pass both the
+compiler and sometimes even unit tests. Having a firm understanding
+of the underlying concepts, which this book aims to give you, can help you
+avoid these pitfalls.
+
+Asynchronous and synchronous code cannot always be combined freely.
+For instance, you can't directly call an async function from a sync function.
+Sync and async code also tend to promote different design patterns, which can
+make it difficult to compose code intended for the different environments.
+Even async code cannot always be combined freely. Some crates depend on a
+specific async runtime to function. If so, it is usually specified in the
+crate's dependency list.
+These compatibility issues can limit your options, so make sure to
+research which async runtime and what crates you may need early.
+Once you have settled in with a runtime, you won't have to worry
+much about compatibility.
+
+The performance of async Rust depends on the implementation of the
+async runtime you're using.
+Even though the runtimes that power async Rust applications are relatively new,
+they perform exceptionally well for most practical workloads.
+That said, most of the async ecosystem assumes a multi-threaded runtime.
+This makes it difficult to enjoy the theoretical performance benefits
+of single-threaded async applications, namely cheaper synchronization.
+Another overlooked use-case is latency sensitive tasks, which are
+important for drivers, GUI applications and so on. Such tasks depend
+on runtime and/or OS support in order to be scheduled appropriately.
+You can expect better library support for these use cases in the future.
+
+async/.await is Rust's built-in tool for writing asynchronous functions
+that look like synchronous code. async transforms a block of code into a
+state machine that implements a trait called Future. Whereas calling a
+blocking function in a synchronous method would block the whole thread,
+blocked Futures will yield control of the thread, allowing other
+Futures to run.
+Let's add some dependencies to the Cargo.toml file:
+[dependencies]
+futures = "0.3"
+
+To create an asynchronous function, you can use the async fn syntax:
+#![allow(unused)]
+fn main() {
+async fn do_something() { /* ... */ }
+}
+The value returned by async fn is a Future. For anything to happen,
+the Future needs to be run on an executor.
+// `block_on` blocks the current thread until the provided future has run to
+// completion. Other executors provide more complex behavior, like scheduling
+// multiple futures onto the same thread.
+use futures::executor::block_on;
+
+async fn hello_world() {
+ println!("hello, world!");
+}
+
+fn main() {
+ let future = hello_world(); // Nothing is printed
+ block_on(future); // `future` is run and "hello, world!" is printed
+}
+Inside an async fn, you can use .await to wait for the completion of
+another type that implements the Future trait, such as the output of
+another async fn. Unlike block_on, .await doesn't block the current
+thread, but instead asynchronously waits for the future to complete, allowing
+other tasks to run if the future is currently unable to make progress.
+For example, imagine that we have three async fn: learn_song, sing_song,
+and dance:
+async fn learn_song() -> Song { /* ... */ }
+async fn sing_song(song: Song) { /* ... */ }
+async fn dance() { /* ... */ }
+One way to do learn, sing, and dance would be to block on each of these
+individually:
+fn main() {
+ let song = block_on(learn_song());
+ block_on(sing_song(song));
+ block_on(dance());
+}
+However, we're not giving the best performance possible this way—we're
+only ever doing one thing at once! Clearly we have to learn the song before
+we can sing it, but it's possible to dance at the same time as learning and
+singing the song. To do this, we can create two separate async fn which
+can be run concurrently:
+async fn learn_and_sing() {
+ // Wait until the song has been learned before singing it.
+ // We use `.await` here rather than `block_on` to prevent blocking the
+ // thread, which makes it possible to `dance` at the same time.
+ let song = learn_song().await;
+ sing_song(song).await;
+}
+
+async fn async_main() {
+ let f1 = learn_and_sing();
+ let f2 = dance();
+
+ // `join!` is like `.await` but can wait for multiple futures concurrently.
+ // If we're temporarily blocked in the `learn_and_sing` future, the `dance`
+ // future will take over the current thread. If `dance` becomes blocked,
+ // `learn_and_sing` can take back over. If both futures are blocked, then
+ // `async_main` is blocked and will yield to the executor.
+ futures::join!(f1, f2);
+}
+
+fn main() {
+ block_on(async_main());
+}
+In this example, learning the song must happen before singing the song, but
+both learning and singing can happen at the same time as dancing. If we used
+block_on(learn_song()) rather than learn_song().await in learn_and_sing,
+the thread wouldn't be able to do anything else while learn_song was running.
+This would make it impossible to dance at the same time. By .await-ing
+the learn_song future, we allow other tasks to take over the current thread
+if learn_song is blocked. This makes it possible to run multiple futures
+to completion concurrently on the same thread.
+
+In this section, we'll cover the underlying structure of how Futures and
+asynchronous tasks are scheduled. If you're only interested in learning
+how to write higher-level code that uses existing Future types and aren't
+interested in the details of how Future types work, you can skip ahead to
+the async/await chapter. However, several of the topics discussed in this
+chapter are useful for understanding how async/await code works,
+understanding the runtime and performance properties of async/await code,
+and building new asynchronous primitives. If you decide to skip this section
+now, you may want to bookmark it to revisit in the future.
+Now, with that out of the way, let's talk about the Future trait.
+
+The Future trait is at the center of asynchronous programming in Rust.
+A Future is an asynchronous computation that can produce a value
+(although that value may be empty, e.g. ()). A simplified version of
+the future trait might look something like this:
+#![allow(unused)]
+fn main() {
+trait SimpleFuture {
+ type Output;
+ fn poll(&mut self, wake: fn()) -> Poll<Self::Output>;
+}
+
+enum Poll<T> {
+ Ready(T),
+ Pending,
+}
+}
+Futures can be advanced by calling the poll function, which will drive the
+future as far towards completion as possible. If the future completes, it
+returns Poll::Ready(result). If the future is not able to complete yet, it
+returns Poll::Pending and arranges for the wake() function to be called
+when the Future is ready to make more progress. When wake() is called, the
+executor driving the Future will call poll again so that the Future can
+make more progress.
+Without wake(), the executor would have no way of knowing when a particular
+future could make progress, and would have to be constantly polling every
+future. With wake(), the executor knows exactly which futures are ready to
+be polled.
+For example, consider the case where we want to read from a socket that may
+or may not have data available already. If there is data, we can read it
+in and return Poll::Ready(data), but if no data is ready, our future is
+blocked and can no longer make progress. When no data is available, we
+must register wake to be called when data becomes ready on the socket,
+which will tell the executor that our future is ready to make progress.
+A simple SocketRead future might look something like this:
+pub struct SocketRead<'a> {
+ socket: &'a Socket,
+}
+
+impl SimpleFuture for SocketRead<'_> {
+ type Output = Vec<u8>;
+
+ fn poll(&mut self, wake: fn()) -> Poll<Self::Output> {
+ if self.socket.has_data_to_read() {
+ // The socket has data -- read it into a buffer and return it.
+ Poll::Ready(self.socket.read_buf())
+ } else {
+ // The socket does not yet have data.
+ //
+ // Arrange for `wake` to be called once data is available.
+ // When data becomes available, `wake` will be called, and the
+ // user of this `Future` will know to call `poll` again and
+ // receive data.
+ self.socket.set_readable_callback(wake);
+ Poll::Pending
+ }
+ }
+}
+This model of Futures allows for composing together multiple asynchronous
+operations without needing intermediate allocations. Running multiple futures
+at once or chaining futures together can be implemented via allocation-free
+state machines, like this:
+/// A SimpleFuture that runs two other futures to completion concurrently.
+///
+/// Concurrency is achieved via the fact that calls to `poll` each future
+/// may be interleaved, allowing each future to advance itself at its own pace.
+pub struct Join<FutureA, FutureB> {
+ // Each field may contain a future that should be run to completion.
+ // If the future has already completed, the field is set to `None`.
+ // This prevents us from polling a future after it has completed, which
+ // would violate the contract of the `Future` trait.
+ a: Option<FutureA>,
+ b: Option<FutureB>,
+}
+
+impl<FutureA, FutureB> SimpleFuture for Join<FutureA, FutureB>
+where
+ FutureA: SimpleFuture<Output = ()>,
+ FutureB: SimpleFuture<Output = ()>,
+{
+ type Output = ();
+ fn poll(&mut self, wake: fn()) -> Poll<Self::Output> {
+ // Attempt to complete future `a`.
+ if let Some(a) = &mut self.a {
+ if let Poll::Ready(()) = a.poll(wake) {
+ self.a.take();
+ }
+ }
+
+ // Attempt to complete future `b`.
+ if let Some(b) = &mut self.b {
+ if let Poll::Ready(()) = b.poll(wake) {
+ self.b.take();
+ }
+ }
+
+ if self.a.is_none() && self.b.is_none() {
+ // Both futures have completed -- we can return successfully
+ Poll::Ready(())
+ } else {
+ // One or both futures returned `Poll::Pending` and still have
+ // work to do. They will call `wake()` when progress can be made.
+ Poll::Pending
+ }
+ }
+}
+This shows how multiple futures can be run simultaneously without needing
+separate allocations, allowing for more efficient asynchronous programs.
+Similarly, multiple sequential futures can be run one after another, like this:
+/// A SimpleFuture that runs two futures to completion, one after another.
+//
+// Note: for the purposes of this simple example, `AndThenFut` assumes both
+// the first and second futures are available at creation-time. The real
+// `AndThen` combinator allows creating the second future based on the output
+// of the first future, like `get_breakfast.and_then(|food| eat(food))`.
+pub struct AndThenFut<FutureA, FutureB> {
+ first: Option<FutureA>,
+ second: FutureB,
+}
+
+impl<FutureA, FutureB> SimpleFuture for AndThenFut<FutureA, FutureB>
+where
+ FutureA: SimpleFuture<Output = ()>,
+ FutureB: SimpleFuture<Output = ()>,
+{
+ type Output = ();
+ fn poll(&mut self, wake: fn()) -> Poll<Self::Output> {
+ if let Some(first) = &mut self.first {
+ match first.poll(wake) {
+ // We've completed the first future -- remove it and start on
+ // the second!
+ Poll::Ready(()) => self.first.take(),
+ // We couldn't yet complete the first future.
+ // Notice that we disrupt the flow of the `pool` function with the `return` statement.
+ Poll::Pending => return Poll::Pending,
+ };
+ }
+ // Now that the first future is done, attempt to complete the second.
+ self.second.poll(wake)
+ }
+}
+These examples show how the Future trait can be used to express asynchronous
+control flow without requiring multiple allocated objects and deeply nested
+callbacks. With the basic control-flow out of the way, let's talk about the
+real Future trait and how it is different.
+trait Future {
+ type Output;
+ fn poll(
+ // Note the change from `&mut self` to `Pin<&mut Self>`:
+ self: Pin<&mut Self>,
+ // and the change from `wake: fn()` to `cx: &mut Context<'_>`:
+ cx: &mut Context<'_>,
+ ) -> Poll<Self::Output>;
+}
+The first change you'll notice is that our self type is no longer &mut Self,
+but has changed to Pin<&mut Self>. We'll talk more about pinning in a later
+section, but for now know that it allows us to create futures that
+are immovable. Immovable objects can store pointers between their fields,
+e.g. struct MyFut { a: i32, ptr_to_a: *const i32 }. Pinning is necessary
+to enable async/await.
+Secondly, wake: fn() has changed to &mut Context<'_>. In SimpleFuture,
+we used a call to a function pointer (fn()) to tell the future executor that
+the future in question should be polled. However, since fn() is just a
+function pointer, it can't store any data about which Future called wake.
+In a real-world scenario, a complex application like a web server may have
+thousands of different connections whose wakeups should all be
+managed separately. The Context type solves this by providing access to
+a value of type Waker, which can be used to wake up a specific task.
+
+It's common that futures aren't able to complete the first time they are
+polled. When this happens, the future needs to ensure that it is polled
+again once it is ready to make more progress. This is done with the Waker
+type.
+Each time a future is polled, it is polled as part of a "task". Tasks are
+the top-level futures that have been submitted to an executor.
+Waker provides a wake() method that can be used to tell the executor that
+the associated task should be awoken. When wake() is called, the executor
+knows that the task associated with the Waker is ready to make progress, and
+its future should be polled again.
+Waker also implements clone() so that it can be copied around and stored.
+Let's try implementing a simple timer future using Waker.
+
+For the sake of the example, we'll just spin up a new thread when the timer
+is created, sleep for the required time, and then signal the timer future
+when the time window has elapsed.
+First, start a new project with cargo new --lib timer_future and add the imports
+we'll need to get started to src/lib.rs:
+#![allow(unused)]
+fn main() {
+use std::{
+ future::Future,
+ pin::Pin,
+ sync::{Arc, Mutex},
+ task::{Context, Poll, Waker},
+ thread,
+ time::Duration,
+};
+}
+Let's start by defining the future type itself. Our future needs a way for the
+thread to communicate that the timer has elapsed and the future should complete.
+We'll use a shared Arc<Mutex<..>> value to communicate between the thread and
+the future.
+pub struct TimerFuture {
+ shared_state: Arc<Mutex<SharedState>>,
+}
+
+/// Shared state between the future and the waiting thread
+struct SharedState {
+ /// Whether or not the sleep time has elapsed
+ completed: bool,
+
+ /// The waker for the task that `TimerFuture` is running on.
+ /// The thread can use this after setting `completed = true` to tell
+ /// `TimerFuture`'s task to wake up, see that `completed = true`, and
+ /// move forward.
+ waker: Option<Waker>,
+}
+Now, let's actually write the Future implementation!
+impl Future for TimerFuture {
+ type Output = ();
+ fn poll(self: Pin<&mut Self>, cx: &mut Context<'_>) -> Poll<Self::Output> {
+ // Look at the shared state to see if the timer has already completed.
+ let mut shared_state = self.shared_state.lock().unwrap();
+ if shared_state.completed {
+ Poll::Ready(())
+ } else {
+ // Set waker so that the thread can wake up the current task
+ // when the timer has completed, ensuring that the future is polled
+ // again and sees that `completed = true`.
+ //
+ // It's tempting to do this once rather than repeatedly cloning
+ // the waker each time. However, the `TimerFuture` can move between
+ // tasks on the executor, which could cause a stale waker pointing
+ // to the wrong task, preventing `TimerFuture` from waking up
+ // correctly.
+ //
+ // N.B. it's possible to check for this using the `Waker::will_wake`
+ // function, but we omit that here to keep things simple.
+ shared_state.waker = Some(cx.waker().clone());
+ Poll::Pending
+ }
+ }
+}
+Pretty simple, right? If the thread has set shared_state.completed = true,
+we're done! Otherwise, we clone the Waker for the current task and pass it to
+shared_state.waker so that the thread can wake the task back up.
+Importantly, we have to update the Waker every time the future is polled
+because the future may have moved to a different task with a different
+Waker. This will happen when futures are passed around between tasks after
+being polled.
+Finally, we need the API to actually construct the timer and start the thread:
+impl TimerFuture {
+ /// Create a new `TimerFuture` which will complete after the provided
+ /// timeout.
+ pub fn new(duration: Duration) -> Self {
+ let shared_state = Arc::new(Mutex::new(SharedState {
+ completed: false,
+ waker: None,
+ }));
+
+ // Spawn the new thread
+ let thread_shared_state = shared_state.clone();
+ thread::spawn(move || {
+ thread::sleep(duration);
+ let mut shared_state = thread_shared_state.lock().unwrap();
+ // Signal that the timer has completed and wake up the last
+ // task on which the future was polled, if one exists.
+ shared_state.completed = true;
+ if let Some(waker) = shared_state.waker.take() {
+ waker.wake()
+ }
+ });
+
+ TimerFuture { shared_state }
+ }
+}
+Woot! That's all we need to build a simple timer future. Now, if only we had
+an executor to run the future on...
+
+Rust's Futures are lazy: they won't do anything unless actively driven to
+completion. One way to drive a future to completion is to .await it inside
+an async function, but that just pushes the problem one level up: who will
+run the futures returned from the top-level async functions? The answer is
+that we need a Future executor.
+Future executors take a set of top-level Futures and run them to completion
+by calling poll whenever the Future can make progress. Typically, an
+executor will poll a future once to start off. When Futures indicate that
+they are ready to make progress by calling wake(), they are placed back
+onto a queue and poll is called again, repeating until the Future has
+completed.
+In this section, we'll write our own simple executor capable of running a large
+number of top-level futures to completion concurrently.
+For this example, we depend on the futures crate for the ArcWake trait,
+which provides an easy way to construct a Waker. Edit Cargo.toml to add
+a new dependency:
+[package]
+name = "timer_future"
+version = "0.1.0"
+authors = ["XYZ Author"]
+edition = "2021"
+
+[dependencies]
+futures = "0.3"
+
+Next, we need the following imports at the top of src/main.rs:
+use futures::{
+ future::{BoxFuture, FutureExt},
+ task::{waker_ref, ArcWake},
+};
+use std::{
+ future::Future,
+ sync::mpsc::{sync_channel, Receiver, SyncSender},
+ sync::{Arc, Mutex},
+ task::Context,
+ time::Duration,
+};
+// The timer we wrote in the previous section:
+use timer_future::TimerFuture;
+Our executor will work by sending tasks to run over a channel. The executor
+will pull events off of the channel and run them. When a task is ready to
+do more work (is awoken), it can schedule itself to be polled again by
+putting itself back onto the channel.
+In this design, the executor itself just needs the receiving end of the task
+channel. The user will get a sending end so that they can spawn new futures.
+Tasks themselves are just futures that can reschedule themselves, so we'll
+store them as a future paired with a sender that the task can use to requeue
+itself.
+/// Task executor that receives tasks off of a channel and runs them.
+struct Executor {
+ ready_queue: Receiver<Arc<Task>>,
+}
+
+/// `Spawner` spawns new futures onto the task channel.
+#[derive(Clone)]
+struct Spawner {
+ task_sender: SyncSender<Arc<Task>>,
+}
+
+/// A future that can reschedule itself to be polled by an `Executor`.
+struct Task {
+ /// In-progress future that should be pushed to completion.
+ ///
+ /// The `Mutex` is not necessary for correctness, since we only have
+ /// one thread executing tasks at once. However, Rust isn't smart
+ /// enough to know that `future` is only mutated from one thread,
+ /// so we need to use the `Mutex` to prove thread-safety. A production
+ /// executor would not need this, and could use `UnsafeCell` instead.
+ future: Mutex<Option<BoxFuture<'static, ()>>>,
+
+ /// Handle to place the task itself back onto the task queue.
+ task_sender: SyncSender<Arc<Task>>,
+}
+
+fn new_executor_and_spawner() -> (Executor, Spawner) {
+ // Maximum number of tasks to allow queueing in the channel at once.
+ // This is just to make `sync_channel` happy, and wouldn't be present in
+ // a real executor.
+ const MAX_QUEUED_TASKS: usize = 10_000;
+ let (task_sender, ready_queue) = sync_channel(MAX_QUEUED_TASKS);
+ (Executor { ready_queue }, Spawner { task_sender })
+}
+Let's also add a method to spawner to make it easy to spawn new futures.
+This method will take a future type, box it, and create a new Arc<Task> with
+it inside which can be enqueued onto the executor.
+impl Spawner {
+ fn spawn(&self, future: impl Future<Output = ()> + 'static + Send) {
+ let future = future.boxed();
+ let task = Arc::new(Task {
+ future: Mutex::new(Some(future)),
+ task_sender: self.task_sender.clone(),
+ });
+ self.task_sender.send(task).expect("too many tasks queued");
+ }
+}
+To poll futures, we'll need to create a Waker.
+As discussed in the task wakeups section, Wakers are responsible
+for scheduling a task to be polled again once wake is called. Remember that
+Wakers tell the executor exactly which task has become ready, allowing
+them to poll just the futures that are ready to make progress. The easiest way
+to create a new Waker is by implementing the ArcWake trait and then using
+the waker_ref or .into_waker() functions to turn an Arc<impl ArcWake>
+into a Waker. Let's implement ArcWake for our tasks to allow them to be
+turned into Wakers and awoken:
+impl ArcWake for Task {
+ fn wake_by_ref(arc_self: &Arc<Self>) {
+ // Implement `wake` by sending this task back onto the task channel
+ // so that it will be polled again by the executor.
+ let cloned = arc_self.clone();
+ arc_self
+ .task_sender
+ .send(cloned)
+ .expect("too many tasks queued");
+ }
+}
+When a Waker is created from an Arc<Task>, calling wake() on it will
+cause a copy of the Arc to be sent onto the task channel. Our executor then
+needs to pick up the task and poll it. Let's implement that:
+impl Executor {
+ fn run(&self) {
+ while let Ok(task) = self.ready_queue.recv() {
+ // Take the future, and if it has not yet completed (is still Some),
+ // poll it in an attempt to complete it.
+ let mut future_slot = task.future.lock().unwrap();
+ if let Some(mut future) = future_slot.take() {
+ // Create a `LocalWaker` from the task itself
+ let waker = waker_ref(&task);
+ let context = &mut Context::from_waker(&waker);
+ // `BoxFuture<T>` is a type alias for
+ // `Pin<Box<dyn Future<Output = T> + Send + 'static>>`.
+ // We can get a `Pin<&mut dyn Future + Send + 'static>`
+ // from it by calling the `Pin::as_mut` method.
+ if future.as_mut().poll(context).is_pending() {
+ // We're not done processing the future, so put it
+ // back in its task to be run again in the future.
+ *future_slot = Some(future);
+ }
+ }
+ }
+ }
+}
+Congratulations! We now have a working futures executor. We can even use it
+to run async/.await code and custom futures, such as the TimerFuture we
+wrote earlier:
+fn main() {
+ let (executor, spawner) = new_executor_and_spawner();
+
+ // Spawn a task to print before and after waiting on a timer.
+ spawner.spawn(async {
+ println!("howdy!");
+ // Wait for our timer future to complete after two seconds.
+ TimerFuture::new(Duration::new(2, 0)).await;
+ println!("done!");
+ });
+
+ // Drop the spawner so that our executor knows it is finished and won't
+ // receive more incoming tasks to run.
+ drop(spawner);
+
+ // Run the executor until the task queue is empty.
+ // This will print "howdy!", pause, and then print "done!".
+ executor.run();
+}
+
+In the previous section on The Future Trait, we discussed this example of
+a future that performed an asynchronous read on a socket:
+pub struct SocketRead<'a> {
+ socket: &'a Socket,
+}
+
+impl SimpleFuture for SocketRead<'_> {
+ type Output = Vec<u8>;
+
+ fn poll(&mut self, wake: fn()) -> Poll<Self::Output> {
+ if self.socket.has_data_to_read() {
+ // The socket has data -- read it into a buffer and return it.
+ Poll::Ready(self.socket.read_buf())
+ } else {
+ // The socket does not yet have data.
+ //
+ // Arrange for `wake` to be called once data is available.
+ // When data becomes available, `wake` will be called, and the
+ // user of this `Future` will know to call `poll` again and
+ // receive data.
+ self.socket.set_readable_callback(wake);
+ Poll::Pending
+ }
+ }
+}
+This future will read available data on a socket, and if no data is available,
+it will yield to the executor, requesting that its task be awoken when the
+socket becomes readable again. However, it's not clear from this example how
+the Socket type is implemented, and in particular it isn't obvious how the
+set_readable_callback function works. How can we arrange for wake()
+to be called once the socket becomes readable? One option would be to have
+a thread that continually checks whether socket is readable, calling
+wake() when appropriate. However, this would be quite inefficient, requiring
+a separate thread for each blocked IO future. This would greatly reduce the
+efficiency of our async code.
+In practice, this problem is solved through integration with an IO-aware
+system blocking primitive, such as epoll on Linux, kqueue on FreeBSD and
+Mac OS, IOCP on Windows, and ports on Fuchsia (all of which are exposed
+through the cross-platform Rust crate mio). These primitives all allow
+a thread to block on multiple asynchronous IO events, returning once one of
+the events completes. In practice, these APIs usually look something like
+this:
+struct IoBlocker {
+ /* ... */
+}
+
+struct Event {
+ // An ID uniquely identifying the event that occurred and was listened for.
+ id: usize,
+
+ // A set of signals to wait for, or which occurred.
+ signals: Signals,
+}
+
+impl IoBlocker {
+ /// Create a new collection of asynchronous IO events to block on.
+ fn new() -> Self { /* ... */ }
+
+ /// Express an interest in a particular IO event.
+ fn add_io_event_interest(
+ &self,
+
+ /// The object on which the event will occur
+ io_object: &IoObject,
+
+ /// A set of signals that may appear on the `io_object` for
+ /// which an event should be triggered, paired with
+ /// an ID to give to events that result from this interest.
+ event: Event,
+ ) { /* ... */ }
+
+ /// Block until one of the events occurs.
+ fn block(&self) -> Event { /* ... */ }
+}
+
+let mut io_blocker = IoBlocker::new();
+io_blocker.add_io_event_interest(
+ &socket_1,
+ Event { id: 1, signals: READABLE },
+);
+io_blocker.add_io_event_interest(
+ &socket_2,
+ Event { id: 2, signals: READABLE | WRITABLE },
+);
+let event = io_blocker.block();
+
+// prints e.g. "Socket 1 is now READABLE" if socket one became readable.
+println!("Socket {:?} is now {:?}", event.id, event.signals);
+Futures executors can use these primitives to provide asynchronous IO objects
+such as sockets that can configure callbacks to be run when a particular IO
+event occurs. In the case of our SocketRead example above, the
+Socket::set_readable_callback function might look like the following pseudocode:
+impl Socket {
+ fn set_readable_callback(&self, waker: Waker) {
+ // `local_executor` is a reference to the local executor.
+ // This could be provided at creation of the socket, but in practice
+ // many executor implementations pass it down through thread local
+ // storage for convenience.
+ let local_executor = self.local_executor;
+
+ // Unique ID for this IO object.
+ let id = self.id;
+
+ // Store the local waker in the executor's map so that it can be called
+ // once the IO event arrives.
+ local_executor.event_map.insert(id, waker);
+ local_executor.add_io_event_interest(
+ &self.socket_file_descriptor,
+ Event { id, signals: READABLE },
+ );
+ }
+}
+We can now have just one executor thread which can receive and dispatch any
+IO event to the appropriate Waker, which will wake up the corresponding
+task, allowing the executor to drive more tasks to completion before returning
+to check for more IO events (and the cycle continues...).
+
+In the first chapter, we took a brief look at async/.await.
+This chapter will discuss async/.await in
+greater detail, explaining how it works and how async code differs from
+traditional Rust programs.
+async/.await are special pieces of Rust syntax that make it possible to
+yield control of the current thread rather than blocking, allowing other
+code to make progress while waiting on an operation to complete.
+There are two main ways to use async: async fn and async blocks.
+Each returns a value that implements the Future trait:
+
+// `foo()` returns a type that implements `Future<Output = u8>`.
+// `foo().await` will result in a value of type `u8`.
+async fn foo() -> u8 { 5 }
+
+fn bar() -> impl Future<Output = u8> {
+ // This `async` block results in a type that implements
+ // `Future<Output = u8>`.
+ async {
+ let x: u8 = foo().await;
+ x + 5
+ }
+}
+As we saw in the first chapter, async bodies and other futures are lazy:
+they do nothing until they are run. The most common way to run a Future
+is to .await it. When .await is called on a Future, it will attempt
+to run it to completion. If the Future is blocked, it will yield control
+of the current thread. When more progress can be made, the Future will be picked
+up by the executor and will resume running, allowing the .await to resolve.
+
+Unlike traditional functions, async fns which take references or other
+non-'static arguments return a Future which is bounded by the lifetime of
+the arguments:
+// This function:
+async fn foo(x: &u8) -> u8 { *x }
+
+// Is equivalent to this function:
+fn foo_expanded<'a>(x: &'a u8) -> impl Future<Output = u8> + 'a {
+ async move { *x }
+}
+This means that the future returned from an async fn must be .awaited
+while its non-'static arguments are still valid. In the common
+case of .awaiting the future immediately after calling the function
+(as in foo(&x).await) this is not an issue. However, if storing the future
+or sending it over to another task or thread, this may be an issue.
+One common workaround for turning an async fn with references-as-arguments
+into a 'static future is to bundle the arguments with the call to the
+async fn inside an async block:
+fn bad() -> impl Future<Output = u8> {
+ let x = 5;
+ borrow_x(&x) // ERROR: `x` does not live long enough
+}
+
+fn good() -> impl Future<Output = u8> {
+ async {
+ let x = 5;
+ borrow_x(&x).await
+ }
+}
+By moving the argument into the async block, we extend its lifetime to match
+that of the Future returned from the call to good.
+
+async blocks and closures allow the move keyword, much like normal
+closures. An async move block will take ownership of the variables it
+references, allowing it to outlive the current scope, but giving up the ability
+to share those variables with other code:
+/// `async` block:
+///
+/// Multiple different `async` blocks can access the same local variable
+/// so long as they're executed within the variable's scope
+async fn blocks() {
+ let my_string = "foo".to_string();
+
+ let future_one = async {
+ // ...
+ println!("{my_string}");
+ };
+
+ let future_two = async {
+ // ...
+ println!("{my_string}");
+ };
+
+ // Run both futures to completion, printing "foo" twice:
+ let ((), ()) = futures::join!(future_one, future_two);
+}
+
+/// `async move` block:
+///
+/// Only one `async move` block can access the same captured variable, since
+/// captures are moved into the `Future` generated by the `async move` block.
+/// However, this allows the `Future` to outlive the original scope of the
+/// variable:
+fn move_block() -> impl Future<Output = ()> {
+ let my_string = "foo".to_string();
+ async move {
+ // ...
+ println!("{my_string}");
+ }
+}
+
+Note that, when using a multithreaded Future executor, a Future may move
+between threads, so any variables used in async bodies must be able to travel
+between threads, as any .await can potentially result in a switch to a new
+thread.
+This means that it is not safe to use Rc, &RefCell or any other types
+that don't implement the Send trait, including references to types that don't
+implement the Sync trait.
+(Caveat: it is possible to use these types as long as they aren't in scope
+during a call to .await.)
+Similarly, it isn't a good idea to hold a traditional non-futures-aware lock
+across an .await, as it can cause the threadpool to lock up: one task could
+take out a lock, .await and yield to the executor, allowing another task to
+attempt to take the lock and cause a deadlock. To avoid this, use the Mutex
+in futures::lock rather than the one from std::sync.
+
+To poll futures, they must be pinned using a special type called
+Pin<T>. If you read the explanation of the Future trait in the
+previous section "Executing Futures and Tasks", you'll recognize
+Pin from the self: Pin<&mut Self> in the Future::poll method's definition.
+But what does it mean, and why do we need it?
+
+Pin works in tandem with the Unpin marker. Pinning makes it possible
+to guarantee that an object implementing !Unpin won't ever be moved. To understand
+why this is necessary, we need to remember how async/.await works. Consider
+the following code:
+let fut_one = /* ... */;
+let fut_two = /* ... */;
+async move {
+ fut_one.await;
+ fut_two.await;
+}
+Under the hood, this creates an anonymous type that implements Future,
+providing a poll method that looks something like this:
+// The `Future` type generated by our `async { ... }` block
+struct AsyncFuture {
+ fut_one: FutOne,
+ fut_two: FutTwo,
+ state: State,
+}
+
+// List of states our `async` block can be in
+enum State {
+ AwaitingFutOne,
+ AwaitingFutTwo,
+ Done,
+}
+
+impl Future for AsyncFuture {
+ type Output = ();
+
+ fn poll(mut self: Pin<&mut Self>, cx: &mut Context<'_>) -> Poll<()> {
+ loop {
+ match self.state {
+ State::AwaitingFutOne => match self.fut_one.poll(..) {
+ Poll::Ready(()) => self.state = State::AwaitingFutTwo,
+ Poll::Pending => return Poll::Pending,
+ }
+ State::AwaitingFutTwo => match self.fut_two.poll(..) {
+ Poll::Ready(()) => self.state = State::Done,
+ Poll::Pending => return Poll::Pending,
+ }
+ State::Done => return Poll::Ready(()),
+ }
+ }
+ }
+}
+When poll is first called, it will poll fut_one. If fut_one can't
+complete, AsyncFuture::poll will return. Future calls to poll will pick
+up where the previous one left off. This process continues until the future
+is able to successfully complete.
+However, what happens if we have an async block that uses references?
+For example:
+async {
+ let mut x = [0; 128];
+ let read_into_buf_fut = read_into_buf(&mut x);
+ read_into_buf_fut.await;
+ println!("{:?}", x);
+}
+What struct does this compile down to?
+struct ReadIntoBuf<'a> {
+ buf: &'a mut [u8], // points to `x` below
+}
+
+struct AsyncFuture {
+ x: [u8; 128],
+ read_into_buf_fut: ReadIntoBuf<'what_lifetime?>,
+}
+Here, the ReadIntoBuf future holds a reference into the other field of our
+structure, x. However, if AsyncFuture is moved, the location of x will
+move as well, invalidating the pointer stored in read_into_buf_fut.buf.
+Pinning futures to a particular spot in memory prevents this problem, making
+it safe to create references to values inside an async block.
+
+Let's try to understand pinning by using an slightly simpler example. The problem we encounter
+above is a problem that ultimately boils down to how we handle references in self-referential
+types in Rust.
+For now our example will look like this:
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct Test {
+ a: String,
+ b: *const String,
+}
+
+impl Test {
+ fn new(txt: &str) -> Self {
+ Test {
+ a: String::from(txt),
+ b: std::ptr::null(),
+ }
+ }
+
+ fn init(&mut self) {
+ let self_ref: *const String = &self.a;
+ self.b = self_ref;
+ }
+
+ fn a(&self) -> &str {
+ &self.a
+ }
+
+ fn b(&self) -> &String {
+ assert!(!self.b.is_null(), "Test::b called without Test::init being called first");
+ unsafe { &*(self.b) }
+ }
+}
+Test provides methods to get a reference to the value of the fields a and b. Since b is a
+reference to a we store it as a pointer since the borrowing rules of Rust don't allow us to
+define this lifetime. We now have what we call a self-referential struct.
+Our example works fine if we don't move any of our data around as you can observe by running
+this example:
+fn main() {
+ let mut test1 = Test::new("test1");
+ test1.init();
+ let mut test2 = Test::new("test2");
+ test2.init();
+
+ println!("a: {}, b: {}", test1.a(), test1.b());
+ println!("a: {}, b: {}", test2.a(), test2.b());
+
+}
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct Test {
+ a: String,
+ b: *const String,
+}
+
+impl Test {
+ fn new(txt: &str) -> Self {
+ Test {
+ a: String::from(txt),
+ b: std::ptr::null(),
+ }
+ }
+
+ // We need an `init` method to actually set our self-reference
+ fn init(&mut self) {
+ let self_ref: *const String = &self.a;
+ self.b = self_ref;
+ }
+
+ fn a(&self) -> &str {
+ &self.a
+ }
+
+ fn b(&self) -> &String {
+ assert!(!self.b.is_null(), "Test::b called without Test::init being called first");
+ unsafe { &*(self.b) }
+ }
+}
+We get what we'd expect:
+a: test1, b: test1
+a: test2, b: test2
+Let's see what happens if we swap test1 with test2 and thereby move the data:
+fn main() {
+ let mut test1 = Test::new("test1");
+ test1.init();
+ let mut test2 = Test::new("test2");
+ test2.init();
+
+ println!("a: {}, b: {}", test1.a(), test1.b());
+ std::mem::swap(&mut test1, &mut test2);
+ println!("a: {}, b: {}", test2.a(), test2.b());
+
+}
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct Test {
+ a: String,
+ b: *const String,
+}
+
+impl Test {
+ fn new(txt: &str) -> Self {
+ Test {
+ a: String::from(txt),
+ b: std::ptr::null(),
+ }
+ }
+
+ fn init(&mut self) {
+ let self_ref: *const String = &self.a;
+ self.b = self_ref;
+ }
+
+ fn a(&self) -> &str {
+ &self.a
+ }
+
+ fn b(&self) -> &String {
+ assert!(!self.b.is_null(), "Test::b called without Test::init being called first");
+ unsafe { &*(self.b) }
+ }
+}
+Naively, we could think that what we should get a debug print of test1 two times like this:
+a: test1, b: test1
+a: test1, b: test1
+But instead we get:
+a: test1, b: test1
+a: test1, b: test2
+The pointer to test2.b still points to the old location which is inside test1
+now. The struct is not self-referential anymore, it holds a pointer to a field
+in a different object. That means we can't rely on the lifetime of test2.b to
+be tied to the lifetime of test2 anymore.
+If you're still not convinced, this should at least convince you:
+fn main() {
+ let mut test1 = Test::new("test1");
+ test1.init();
+ let mut test2 = Test::new("test2");
+ test2.init();
+
+ println!("a: {}, b: {}", test1.a(), test1.b());
+ std::mem::swap(&mut test1, &mut test2);
+ test1.a = "I've totally changed now!".to_string();
+ println!("a: {}, b: {}", test2.a(), test2.b());
+
+}
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct Test {
+ a: String,
+ b: *const String,
+}
+
+impl Test {
+ fn new(txt: &str) -> Self {
+ Test {
+ a: String::from(txt),
+ b: std::ptr::null(),
+ }
+ }
+
+ fn init(&mut self) {
+ let self_ref: *const String = &self.a;
+ self.b = self_ref;
+ }
+
+ fn a(&self) -> &str {
+ &self.a
+ }
+
+ fn b(&self) -> &String {
+ assert!(!self.b.is_null(), "Test::b called without Test::init being called first");
+ unsafe { &*(self.b) }
+ }
+}
+The diagram below can help visualize what's going on:
+Fig 1: Before and after swap
+
+It's easy to get this to show undefined behavior and fail in other spectacular ways as well.
+
+Let's see how pinning and the Pin type can help us solve this problem.
+The Pin type wraps pointer types, guaranteeing that the values behind the
+pointer won't be moved if it is not implementing Unpin. For example, Pin<&mut T>, Pin<&T>, Pin<Box<T>> all guarantee that T won't be moved if T: !Unpin.
+Most types don't have a problem being moved. These types implement a trait
+called Unpin. Pointers to Unpin types can be freely placed into or taken
+out of Pin. For example, u8 is Unpin, so Pin<&mut u8> behaves just like
+a normal &mut u8.
+However, types that can't be moved after they're pinned have a marker called
+!Unpin. Futures created by async/await are an example of this.
+
+Back to our example. We can solve our problem by using Pin. Let's take a look at what
+our example would look like if we required a pinned pointer instead:
+use std::pin::Pin;
+use std::marker::PhantomPinned;
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct Test {
+ a: String,
+ b: *const String,
+ _marker: PhantomPinned,
+}
+
+
+impl Test {
+ fn new(txt: &str) -> Self {
+ Test {
+ a: String::from(txt),
+ b: std::ptr::null(),
+ _marker: PhantomPinned, // This makes our type `!Unpin`
+ }
+ }
+
+ fn init(self: Pin<&mut Self>) {
+ let self_ptr: *const String = &self.a;
+ let this = unsafe { self.get_unchecked_mut() };
+ this.b = self_ptr;
+ }
+
+ fn a(self: Pin<&Self>) -> &str {
+ &self.get_ref().a
+ }
+
+ fn b(self: Pin<&Self>) -> &String {
+ assert!(!self.b.is_null(), "Test::b called without Test::init being called first");
+ unsafe { &*(self.b) }
+ }
+}
+Pinning an object to the stack will always be unsafe if our type implements
+!Unpin. You can use a crate like pin_utils to avoid writing
+our own unsafe code when pinning to the stack.
+Below, we pin the objects test1 and test2 to the stack:
+pub fn main() {
+ // test1 is safe to move before we initialize it
+ let mut test1 = Test::new("test1");
+ // Notice how we shadow `test1` to prevent it from being accessed again
+ let mut test1 = unsafe { Pin::new_unchecked(&mut test1) };
+ Test::init(test1.as_mut());
+
+ let mut test2 = Test::new("test2");
+ let mut test2 = unsafe { Pin::new_unchecked(&mut test2) };
+ Test::init(test2.as_mut());
+
+ println!("a: {}, b: {}", Test::a(test1.as_ref()), Test::b(test1.as_ref()));
+ println!("a: {}, b: {}", Test::a(test2.as_ref()), Test::b(test2.as_ref()));
+}
+use std::pin::Pin;
+use std::marker::PhantomPinned;
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct Test {
+ a: String,
+ b: *const String,
+ _marker: PhantomPinned,
+}
+
+
+impl Test {
+ fn new(txt: &str) -> Self {
+ Test {
+ a: String::from(txt),
+ b: std::ptr::null(),
+ // This makes our type `!Unpin`
+ _marker: PhantomPinned,
+ }
+ }
+
+ fn init(self: Pin<&mut Self>) {
+ let self_ptr: *const String = &self.a;
+ let this = unsafe { self.get_unchecked_mut() };
+ this.b = self_ptr;
+ }
+
+ fn a(self: Pin<&Self>) -> &str {
+ &self.get_ref().a
+ }
+
+ fn b(self: Pin<&Self>) -> &String {
+ assert!(!self.b.is_null(), "Test::b called without Test::init being called first");
+ unsafe { &*(self.b) }
+ }
+}
+Now, if we try to move our data now we get a compilation error:
+pub fn main() {
+ let mut test1 = Test::new("test1");
+ let mut test1 = unsafe { Pin::new_unchecked(&mut test1) };
+ Test::init(test1.as_mut());
+
+ let mut test2 = Test::new("test2");
+ let mut test2 = unsafe { Pin::new_unchecked(&mut test2) };
+ Test::init(test2.as_mut());
+
+ println!("a: {}, b: {}", Test::a(test1.as_ref()), Test::b(test1.as_ref()));
+ std::mem::swap(test1.get_mut(), test2.get_mut());
+ println!("a: {}, b: {}", Test::a(test2.as_ref()), Test::b(test2.as_ref()));
+}
+use std::pin::Pin;
+use std::marker::PhantomPinned;
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct Test {
+ a: String,
+ b: *const String,
+ _marker: PhantomPinned,
+}
+
+
+impl Test {
+ fn new(txt: &str) -> Self {
+ Test {
+ a: String::from(txt),
+ b: std::ptr::null(),
+ _marker: PhantomPinned, // This makes our type `!Unpin`
+ }
+ }
+
+ fn init(self: Pin<&mut Self>) {
+ let self_ptr: *const String = &self.a;
+ let this = unsafe { self.get_unchecked_mut() };
+ this.b = self_ptr;
+ }
+
+ fn a(self: Pin<&Self>) -> &str {
+ &self.get_ref().a
+ }
+
+ fn b(self: Pin<&Self>) -> &String {
+ assert!(!self.b.is_null(), "Test::b called without Test::init being called first");
+ unsafe { &*(self.b) }
+ }
+}
+The type system prevents us from moving the data, as follows:
+error[E0277]: `PhantomPinned` cannot be unpinned
+ --> src\test.rs:56:30
+ |
+56 | std::mem::swap(test1.get_mut(), test2.get_mut());
+ | ^^^^^^^ within `test1::Test`, the trait `Unpin` is not implemented for `PhantomPinned`
+ |
+ = note: consider using `Box::pin`
+note: required because it appears within the type `test1::Test`
+ --> src\test.rs:7:8
+ |
+7 | struct Test {
+ | ^^^^
+note: required by a bound in `std::pin::Pin::<&'a mut T>::get_mut`
+ --> <...>rustlib/src/rust\library\core\src\pin.rs:748:12
+ |
+748 | T: Unpin,
+ | ^^^^^ required by this bound in `std::pin::Pin::<&'a mut T>::get_mut`
+
+
+It's important to note that stack pinning will always rely on guarantees
+you give when writing unsafe. While we know that the pointee of &'a mut T
+is pinned for the lifetime of 'a we can't know if the data &'a mut T
+points to isn't moved after 'a ends. If it does it will violate the Pin
+contract.
+A mistake that is easy to make is forgetting to shadow the original variable
+since you could drop the Pin and move the data after &'a mut T
+like shown below (which violates the Pin contract):
+fn main() {
+ let mut test1 = Test::new("test1");
+ let mut test1_pin = unsafe { Pin::new_unchecked(&mut test1) };
+ Test::init(test1_pin.as_mut());
+
+ drop(test1_pin);
+ println!(r#"test1.b points to "test1": {:?}..."#, test1.b);
+
+ let mut test2 = Test::new("test2");
+ mem::swap(&mut test1, &mut test2);
+ println!("... and now it points nowhere: {:?}", test1.b);
+}
+use std::pin::Pin;
+use std::marker::PhantomPinned;
+use std::mem;
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct Test {
+ a: String,
+ b: *const String,
+ _marker: PhantomPinned,
+}
+
+
+impl Test {
+ fn new(txt: &str) -> Self {
+ Test {
+ a: String::from(txt),
+ b: std::ptr::null(),
+ // This makes our type `!Unpin`
+ _marker: PhantomPinned,
+ }
+ }
+
+ fn init<'a>(self: Pin<&'a mut Self>) {
+ let self_ptr: *const String = &self.a;
+ let this = unsafe { self.get_unchecked_mut() };
+ this.b = self_ptr;
+ }
+
+ fn a<'a>(self: Pin<&'a Self>) -> &'a str {
+ &self.get_ref().a
+ }
+
+ fn b<'a>(self: Pin<&'a Self>) -> &'a String {
+ assert!(!self.b.is_null(), "Test::b called without Test::init being called first");
+ unsafe { &*(self.b) }
+ }
+}
+
+
+Pinning an !Unpin type to the heap gives our data a stable address so we know
+that the data we point to can't move after it's pinned. In contrast to stack
+pinning, we know that the data will be pinned for the lifetime of the object.
+use std::pin::Pin;
+use std::marker::PhantomPinned;
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct Test {
+ a: String,
+ b: *const String,
+ _marker: PhantomPinned,
+}
+
+impl Test {
+ fn new(txt: &str) -> Pin<Box<Self>> {
+ let t = Test {
+ a: String::from(txt),
+ b: std::ptr::null(),
+ _marker: PhantomPinned,
+ };
+ let mut boxed = Box::pin(t);
+ let self_ptr: *const String = &boxed.a;
+ unsafe { boxed.as_mut().get_unchecked_mut().b = self_ptr };
+
+ boxed
+ }
+
+ fn a(self: Pin<&Self>) -> &str {
+ &self.get_ref().a
+ }
+
+ fn b(self: Pin<&Self>) -> &String {
+ unsafe { &*(self.b) }
+ }
+}
+
+pub fn main() {
+ let test1 = Test::new("test1");
+ let test2 = Test::new("test2");
+
+ println!("a: {}, b: {}",test1.as_ref().a(), test1.as_ref().b());
+ println!("a: {}, b: {}",test2.as_ref().a(), test2.as_ref().b());
+}
+Some functions require the futures they work with to be Unpin. To use a
+Future or Stream that isn't Unpin with a function that requires
+Unpin types, you'll first have to pin the value using either
+Box::pin (to create a Pin<Box<T>>) or the pin_utils::pin_mut! macro
+(to create a Pin<&mut T>). Pin<Box<Fut>> and Pin<&mut Fut> can both be
+used as futures, and both implement Unpin.
+For example:
+use pin_utils::pin_mut; // `pin_utils` is a handy crate available on crates.io
+
+// A function which takes a `Future` that implements `Unpin`.
+fn execute_unpin_future(x: impl Future<Output = ()> + Unpin) { /* ... */ }
+
+let fut = async { /* ... */ };
+execute_unpin_future(fut); // Error: `fut` does not implement `Unpin` trait
+
+// Pinning with `Box`:
+let fut = async { /* ... */ };
+let fut = Box::pin(fut);
+execute_unpin_future(fut); // OK
+
+// Pinning with `pin_mut!`:
+let fut = async { /* ... */ };
+pin_mut!(fut);
+execute_unpin_future(fut); // OK
+
+
+-
+
If T: Unpin (which is the default), then Pin<'a, T> is entirely
+equivalent to &'a mut T. In other words: Unpin means it's OK for this type
+to be moved even when pinned, so Pin will have no effect on such a type.
+
+-
+
Getting a &mut T to a pinned T requires unsafe if T: !Unpin.
+
+-
+
Most standard library types implement Unpin. The same goes for most
+"normal" types you encounter in Rust. A Future generated by async/await is an exception to this rule.
+
+-
+
You can add a !Unpin bound on a type on nightly with a feature flag, or
+by adding std::marker::PhantomPinned to your type on stable.
+
+-
+
You can either pin data to the stack or to the heap.
+
+-
+
Pinning a !Unpin object to the stack requires unsafe
+
+-
+
Pinning a !Unpin object to the heap does not require unsafe. There is a shortcut for doing this using Box::pin.
+
+-
+
For pinned data where T: !Unpin you have to maintain the invariant that its memory will not
+get invalidated or repurposed from the moment it gets pinned until when drop is called. This is
+an important part of the pin contract.
+
+
+
+The Stream trait is similar to Future but can yield multiple values before
+completing, similar to the Iterator trait from the standard library:
+trait Stream {
+ /// The type of the value yielded by the stream.
+ type Item;
+
+ /// Attempt to resolve the next item in the stream.
+ /// Returns `Poll::Pending` if not ready, `Poll::Ready(Some(x))` if a value
+ /// is ready, and `Poll::Ready(None)` if the stream has completed.
+ fn poll_next(self: Pin<&mut Self>, cx: &mut Context<'_>)
+ -> Poll<Option<Self::Item>>;
+}
+One common example of a Stream is the Receiver for the channel type from
+the futures crate. It will yield Some(val) every time a value is sent
+from the Sender end, and will yield None once the Sender has been
+dropped and all pending messages have been received:
+async fn send_recv() {
+ const BUFFER_SIZE: usize = 10;
+ let (mut tx, mut rx) = mpsc::channel::<i32>(BUFFER_SIZE);
+
+ tx.send(1).await.unwrap();
+ tx.send(2).await.unwrap();
+ drop(tx);
+
+ // `StreamExt::next` is similar to `Iterator::next`, but returns a
+ // type that implements `Future<Output = Option<T>>`.
+ assert_eq!(Some(1), rx.next().await);
+ assert_eq!(Some(2), rx.next().await);
+ assert_eq!(None, rx.next().await);
+}
+
+Similar to synchronous Iterators, there are many different ways to iterate
+over and process the values in a Stream. There are combinator-style methods
+such as map, filter, and fold, and their early-exit-on-error cousins
+try_map, try_filter, and try_fold.
+Unfortunately, for loops are not usable with Streams, but for
+imperative-style code, while let and the next/try_next functions can
+be used:
+async fn sum_with_next(mut stream: Pin<&mut dyn Stream<Item = i32>>) -> i32 {
+ use futures::stream::StreamExt; // for `next`
+ let mut sum = 0;
+ while let Some(item) = stream.next().await {
+ sum += item;
+ }
+ sum
+}
+
+async fn sum_with_try_next(
+ mut stream: Pin<&mut dyn Stream<Item = Result<i32, io::Error>>>,
+) -> Result<i32, io::Error> {
+ use futures::stream::TryStreamExt; // for `try_next`
+ let mut sum = 0;
+ while let Some(item) = stream.try_next().await? {
+ sum += item;
+ }
+ Ok(sum)
+}
+However, if we're just processing one element at a time, we're potentially
+leaving behind opportunity for concurrency, which is, after all, why we're
+writing async code in the first place. To process multiple items from a stream
+concurrently, use the for_each_concurrent and try_for_each_concurrent
+methods:
+async fn jump_around(
+ mut stream: Pin<&mut dyn Stream<Item = Result<u8, io::Error>>>,
+) -> Result<(), io::Error> {
+ use futures::stream::TryStreamExt; // for `try_for_each_concurrent`
+ const MAX_CONCURRENT_JUMPERS: usize = 100;
+
+ stream.try_for_each_concurrent(MAX_CONCURRENT_JUMPERS, |num| async move {
+ jump_n_times(num).await?;
+ report_n_jumps(num).await?;
+ Ok(())
+ }).await?;
+
+ Ok(())
+}
+
+Up until now, we've mostly executed futures by using .await, which blocks
+the current task until a particular Future completes. However, real
+asynchronous applications often need to execute several different
+operations concurrently.
+In this chapter, we'll cover some ways to execute multiple asynchronous
+operations at the same time:
+
+join!: waits for futures to all completeselect!: waits for one of several futures to complete- Spawning: creates a top-level task which ambiently runs a future to completion
+FuturesUnordered: a group of futures which yields the result of each subfuture
+
+The futures::join macro makes it possible to wait for multiple different
+futures to complete while executing them all concurrently.
+
+When performing multiple asynchronous operations, it's tempting to simply
+.await them in a series:
+async fn get_book_and_music() -> (Book, Music) {
+ let book = get_book().await;
+ let music = get_music().await;
+ (book, music)
+}
+However, this will be slower than necessary, since it won't start trying to
+get_music until after get_book has completed. In some other languages,
+futures are ambiently run to completion, so two operations can be
+run concurrently by first calling each async fn to start the futures, and
+then awaiting them both:
+// WRONG -- don't do this
+async fn get_book_and_music() -> (Book, Music) {
+ let book_future = get_book();
+ let music_future = get_music();
+ (book_future.await, music_future.await)
+}
+However, Rust futures won't do any work until they're actively .awaited.
+This means that the two code snippets above will both run
+book_future and music_future in series rather than running them
+concurrently. To correctly run the two futures concurrently, use
+futures::join!:
+use futures::join;
+
+async fn get_book_and_music() -> (Book, Music) {
+ let book_fut = get_book();
+ let music_fut = get_music();
+ join!(book_fut, music_fut)
+}
+The value returned by join! is a tuple containing the output of each
+Future passed in.
+
+For futures which return Result, consider using try_join! rather than
+join!. Since join! only completes once all subfutures have completed,
+it'll continue processing other futures even after one of its subfutures
+has returned an Err.
+Unlike join!, try_join! will complete immediately if one of the subfutures
+returns an error.
+use futures::try_join;
+
+async fn get_book() -> Result<Book, String> { /* ... */ Ok(Book) }
+async fn get_music() -> Result<Music, String> { /* ... */ Ok(Music) }
+
+async fn get_book_and_music() -> Result<(Book, Music), String> {
+ let book_fut = get_book();
+ let music_fut = get_music();
+ try_join!(book_fut, music_fut)
+}
+Note that the futures passed to try_join! must all have the same error type.
+Consider using the .map_err(|e| ...) and .err_into() functions from
+futures::future::TryFutureExt to consolidate the error types:
+use futures::{
+ future::TryFutureExt,
+ try_join,
+};
+
+async fn get_book() -> Result<Book, ()> { /* ... */ Ok(Book) }
+async fn get_music() -> Result<Music, String> { /* ... */ Ok(Music) }
+
+async fn get_book_and_music() -> Result<(Book, Music), String> {
+ let book_fut = get_book().map_err(|()| "Unable to get book".to_string());
+ let music_fut = get_music();
+ try_join!(book_fut, music_fut)
+}
+
+The futures::select macro runs multiple futures simultaneously, allowing
+the user to respond as soon as any future completes.
+#![allow(unused)]
+fn main() {
+use futures::{
+ future::FutureExt, // for `.fuse()`
+ pin_mut,
+ select,
+};
+
+async fn task_one() { /* ... */ }
+async fn task_two() { /* ... */ }
+
+async fn race_tasks() {
+ let t1 = task_one().fuse();
+ let t2 = task_two().fuse();
+
+ pin_mut!(t1, t2);
+
+ select! {
+ () = t1 => println!("task one completed first"),
+ () = t2 => println!("task two completed first"),
+ }
+}
+}
+The function above will run both t1 and t2 concurrently. When either
+t1 or t2 finishes, the corresponding handler will call println!, and
+the function will end without completing the remaining task.
+The basic syntax for select is <pattern> = <expression> => <code>,,
+repeated for as many futures as you would like to select over.
+
+select also supports default and complete branches.
+A default branch will run if none of the futures being selected
+over are yet complete. A select with a default branch will
+therefore always return immediately, since default will be run
+if none of the other futures are ready.
+complete branches can be used to handle the case where all futures
+being selected over have completed and will no longer make progress.
+This is often handy when looping over a select!.
+#![allow(unused)]
+fn main() {
+use futures::{future, select};
+
+async fn count() {
+ let mut a_fut = future::ready(4);
+ let mut b_fut = future::ready(6);
+ let mut total = 0;
+
+ loop {
+ select! {
+ a = a_fut => total += a,
+ b = b_fut => total += b,
+ complete => break,
+ default => unreachable!(), // never runs (futures are ready, then complete)
+ };
+ }
+ assert_eq!(total, 10);
+}
+}
+
+One thing you may have noticed in the first example above is that we
+had to call .fuse() on the futures returned by the two async fns,
+as well as pinning them with pin_mut. Both of these calls are necessary
+because the futures used in select must implement both the Unpin
+trait and the FusedFuture trait.
+Unpin is necessary because the futures used by select are not
+taken by value, but by mutable reference. By not taking ownership
+of the future, uncompleted futures can be used again after the
+call to select.
+Similarly, the FusedFuture trait is required because select must
+not poll a future after it has completed. FusedFuture is implemented
+by futures which track whether or not they have completed. This makes
+it possible to use select in a loop, only polling the futures which
+still have yet to complete. This can be seen in the example above,
+where a_fut or b_fut will have completed the second time through
+the loop. Because the future returned by future::ready implements
+FusedFuture, it's able to tell select not to poll it again.
+Note that streams have a corresponding FusedStream trait. Streams
+which implement this trait or have been wrapped using .fuse()
+will yield FusedFuture futures from their
+.next() / .try_next() combinators.
+#![allow(unused)]
+fn main() {
+use futures::{
+ stream::{Stream, StreamExt, FusedStream},
+ select,
+};
+
+async fn add_two_streams(
+ mut s1: impl Stream<Item = u8> + FusedStream + Unpin,
+ mut s2: impl Stream<Item = u8> + FusedStream + Unpin,
+) -> u8 {
+ let mut total = 0;
+
+ loop {
+ let item = select! {
+ x = s1.next() => x,
+ x = s2.next() => x,
+ complete => break,
+ };
+ if let Some(next_num) = item {
+ total += next_num;
+ }
+ }
+
+ total
+}
+}
+
+One somewhat hard-to-discover but handy function is Fuse::terminated(),
+which allows constructing an empty future which is already terminated,
+and can later be filled in with a future that needs to be run.
+This can be handy when there's a task that needs to be run during a select
+loop but which is created inside the select loop itself.
+Note the use of the .select_next_some() function. This can be
+used with select to only run the branch for Some(_) values
+returned from the stream, ignoring Nones.
+#![allow(unused)]
+fn main() {
+use futures::{
+ future::{Fuse, FusedFuture, FutureExt},
+ stream::{FusedStream, Stream, StreamExt},
+ pin_mut,
+ select,
+};
+
+async fn get_new_num() -> u8 { /* ... */ 5 }
+
+async fn run_on_new_num(_: u8) { /* ... */ }
+
+async fn run_loop(
+ mut interval_timer: impl Stream<Item = ()> + FusedStream + Unpin,
+ starting_num: u8,
+) {
+ let run_on_new_num_fut = run_on_new_num(starting_num).fuse();
+ let get_new_num_fut = Fuse::terminated();
+ pin_mut!(run_on_new_num_fut, get_new_num_fut);
+ loop {
+ select! {
+ () = interval_timer.select_next_some() => {
+ // The timer has elapsed. Start a new `get_new_num_fut`
+ // if one was not already running.
+ if get_new_num_fut.is_terminated() {
+ get_new_num_fut.set(get_new_num().fuse());
+ }
+ },
+ new_num = get_new_num_fut => {
+ // A new number has arrived -- start a new `run_on_new_num_fut`,
+ // dropping the old one.
+ run_on_new_num_fut.set(run_on_new_num(new_num).fuse());
+ },
+ // Run the `run_on_new_num_fut`
+ () = run_on_new_num_fut => {},
+ // panic if everything completed, since the `interval_timer` should
+ // keep yielding values indefinitely.
+ complete => panic!("`interval_timer` completed unexpectedly"),
+ }
+ }
+}
+}
+When many copies of the same future need to be run simultaneously,
+use the FuturesUnordered type. The following example is similar
+to the one above, but will run each copy of run_on_new_num_fut
+to completion, rather than aborting them when a new one is created.
+It will also print out a value returned by run_on_new_num_fut.
+#![allow(unused)]
+fn main() {
+use futures::{
+ future::{Fuse, FusedFuture, FutureExt},
+ stream::{FusedStream, FuturesUnordered, Stream, StreamExt},
+ pin_mut,
+ select,
+};
+
+async fn get_new_num() -> u8 { /* ... */ 5 }
+
+async fn run_on_new_num(_: u8) -> u8 { /* ... */ 5 }
+
+async fn run_loop(
+ mut interval_timer: impl Stream<Item = ()> + FusedStream + Unpin,
+ starting_num: u8,
+) {
+ let mut run_on_new_num_futs = FuturesUnordered::new();
+ run_on_new_num_futs.push(run_on_new_num(starting_num));
+ let get_new_num_fut = Fuse::terminated();
+ pin_mut!(get_new_num_fut);
+ loop {
+ select! {
+ () = interval_timer.select_next_some() => {
+ // The timer has elapsed. Start a new `get_new_num_fut`
+ // if one was not already running.
+ if get_new_num_fut.is_terminated() {
+ get_new_num_fut.set(get_new_num().fuse());
+ }
+ },
+ new_num = get_new_num_fut => {
+ // A new number has arrived -- start a new `run_on_new_num_fut`.
+ run_on_new_num_futs.push(run_on_new_num(new_num));
+ },
+ // Run the `run_on_new_num_futs` and check if any have completed
+ res = run_on_new_num_futs.select_next_some() => {
+ println!("run_on_new_num_fut returned {:?}", res);
+ },
+ // panic if everything completed, since the `interval_timer` should
+ // keep yielding values indefinitely.
+ complete => panic!("`interval_timer` completed unexpectedly"),
+ }
+ }
+}
+
+}
+
+Spawning allows you to run a new asynchronous task in the background. This allows us to continue executing other code
+while it runs.
+Say we have a web server that wants to accept connections without blocking the main thread.
+To achieve this, we can use the async_std::task::spawn function to create and run a new task that handles the
+connections. This function takes a future and returns a JoinHandle, which can be used to wait for the result of the
+task once it's completed.
+use async_std::{task, net::TcpListener, net::TcpStream};
+use futures::AsyncWriteExt;
+
+async fn process_request(stream: &mut TcpStream) -> Result<(), std::io::Error>{
+ stream.write_all(b"HTTP/1.1 200 OK\r\n\r\n").await?;
+ stream.write_all(b"Hello World").await?;
+ Ok(())
+}
+
+async fn main() {
+ let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:8080").await.unwrap();
+ loop {
+ // Accept a new connection
+ let (mut stream, _) = listener.accept().await.unwrap();
+ // Now process this request without blocking the main loop
+ task::spawn(async move {process_request(&mut stream).await});
+ }
+}
+The JoinHandle returned by spawn implements the Future trait, so we can .await it to get the result of the task.
+This will block the current task until the spawned task completes. If the task is not awaited, your program will
+continue executing without waiting for the task, cancelling it if the function is completed before the task is finished.
+#![allow(unused)]
+fn main() {
+use futures::future::join_all;
+async fn task_spawner(){
+ let tasks = vec![
+ task::spawn(my_task(Duration::from_secs(1))),
+ task::spawn(my_task(Duration::from_secs(2))),
+ task::spawn(my_task(Duration::from_secs(3))),
+ ];
+ // If we do not await these tasks and the function finishes, they will be dropped
+ join_all(tasks).await;
+}
+}
+To communicate between the main task and the spawned task, we can use channels
+provided by the async runtime used.
+
+Rust's async support is still fairly new, and there are a handful of
+highly-requested features still under active development, as well
+as some subpar diagnostics. This chapter will discuss some common pain
+points and explain how to work around them.
+
+Just as in async fn, it's common to use ? inside async blocks.
+However, the return type of async blocks isn't explicitly stated.
+This can cause the compiler to fail to infer the error type of the
+async block.
+For example, this code:
+#![allow(unused)]
+fn main() {
+struct MyError;
+async fn foo() -> Result<(), MyError> { Ok(()) }
+async fn bar() -> Result<(), MyError> { Ok(()) }
+let fut = async {
+ foo().await?;
+ bar().await?;
+ Ok(())
+};
+}
+will trigger this error:
+error[E0282]: type annotations needed
+ --> src/main.rs:5:9
+ |
+4 | let fut = async {
+ | --- consider giving `fut` a type
+5 | foo().await?;
+ | ^^^^^^^^^^^^ cannot infer type
+
+Unfortunately, there's currently no way to "give fut a type", nor a way
+to explicitly specify the return type of an async block.
+To work around this, use the "turbofish" operator to supply the success and
+error types for the async block:
+#![allow(unused)]
+fn main() {
+struct MyError;
+async fn foo() -> Result<(), MyError> { Ok(()) }
+async fn bar() -> Result<(), MyError> { Ok(()) }
+let fut = async {
+ foo().await?;
+ bar().await?;
+ Ok::<(), MyError>(()) // <- note the explicit type annotation here
+};
+}
+
+Some async fn state machines are safe to be sent across threads, while
+others are not. Whether or not an async fn Future is Send is determined
+by whether a non-Send type is held across an .await point. The compiler
+does its best to approximate when values may be held across an .await
+point, but this analysis is too conservative in a number of places today.
+For example, consider a simple non-Send type, perhaps a type
+which contains an Rc:
+#![allow(unused)]
+fn main() {
+use std::rc::Rc;
+
+#[derive(Default)]
+struct NotSend(Rc<()>);
+}
+Variables of type NotSend can briefly appear as temporaries in async fns
+even when the resulting Future type returned by the async fn must be Send:
+use std::rc::Rc;
+#[derive(Default)]
+struct NotSend(Rc<()>);
+async fn bar() {}
+async fn foo() {
+ NotSend::default();
+ bar().await;
+}
+
+fn require_send(_: impl Send) {}
+
+fn main() {
+ require_send(foo());
+}
+However, if we change foo to store NotSend in a variable, this example no
+longer compiles:
+use std::rc::Rc;
+#[derive(Default)]
+struct NotSend(Rc<()>);
+async fn bar() {}
+async fn foo() {
+ let x = NotSend::default();
+ bar().await;
+}
+fn require_send(_: impl Send) {}
+fn main() {
+ require_send(foo());
+}
+error[E0277]: `std::rc::Rc<()>` cannot be sent between threads safely
+ --> src/main.rs:15:5
+ |
+15 | require_send(foo());
+ | ^^^^^^^^^^^^ `std::rc::Rc<()>` cannot be sent between threads safely
+ |
+ = help: within `impl std::future::Future`, the trait `std::marker::Send` is not implemented for `std::rc::Rc<()>`
+ = note: required because it appears within the type `NotSend`
+ = note: required because it appears within the type `{NotSend, impl std::future::Future, ()}`
+ = note: required because it appears within the type `[static generator@src/main.rs:7:16: 10:2 {NotSend, impl std::future::Future, ()}]`
+ = note: required because it appears within the type `std::future::GenFuture<[static generator@src/main.rs:7:16: 10:2 {NotSend, impl std::future::Future, ()}]>`
+ = note: required because it appears within the type `impl std::future::Future`
+ = note: required because it appears within the type `impl std::future::Future`
+note: required by `require_send`
+ --> src/main.rs:12:1
+ |
+12 | fn require_send(_: impl Send) {}
+ | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+error: aborting due to previous error
+
+For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0277`.
+
+This error is correct. If we store x into a variable, it won't be dropped
+until after the .await, at which point the async fn may be running on
+a different thread. Since Rc is not Send, allowing it to travel across
+threads would be unsound. One simple solution to this would be to drop
+the Rc before the .await, but unfortunately that does not work today.
+In order to successfully work around this issue, you may have to introduce
+a block scope encapsulating any non-Send variables. This makes it easier
+for the compiler to tell that these variables do not live across an
+.await point.
+use std::rc::Rc;
+#[derive(Default)]
+struct NotSend(Rc<()>);
+async fn bar() {}
+async fn foo() {
+ {
+ let x = NotSend::default();
+ }
+ bar().await;
+}
+fn require_send(_: impl Send) {}
+fn main() {
+ require_send(foo());
+}
+
+Internally, async fn creates a state machine type containing each
+sub-Future being .awaited. This makes recursive async fns a little
+tricky, since the resulting state machine type has to contain itself:
+#![allow(unused)]
+fn main() {
+async fn step_one() { /* ... */ }
+async fn step_two() { /* ... */ }
+struct StepOne;
+struct StepTwo;
+// This function:
+async fn foo() {
+ step_one().await;
+ step_two().await;
+}
+// generates a type like this:
+enum Foo {
+ First(StepOne),
+ Second(StepTwo),
+}
+
+// So this function:
+async fn recursive() {
+ recursive().await;
+ recursive().await;
+}
+
+// generates a type like this:
+enum Recursive {
+ First(Recursive),
+ Second(Recursive),
+}
+}
+This won't work—we've created an infinitely-sized type!
+The compiler will complain:
+error[E0733]: recursion in an `async fn` requires boxing
+ --> src/lib.rs:1:22
+ |
+1 | async fn recursive() {
+ | ^ an `async fn` cannot invoke itself directly
+ |
+ = note: a recursive `async fn` must be rewritten to return a boxed future.
+
+In order to allow this, we have to introduce an indirection using Box.
+Unfortunately, compiler limitations mean that just wrapping the calls to
+recursive() in Box::pin isn't enough. To make this work, we have
+to make recursive into a non-async function which returns a .boxed()
+async block:
+#![allow(unused)]
+fn main() {
+use futures::future::{BoxFuture, FutureExt};
+
+fn recursive() -> BoxFuture<'static, ()> {
+ async move {
+ recursive().await;
+ recursive().await;
+ }.boxed()
+}
+}
+
+Currently, async fn cannot be used in traits on the stable release of Rust.
+Since the 17th November 2022, an MVP of async-fn-in-trait is available on the nightly
+version of the compiler tool chain, see here for details.
+In the meantime, there is a work around for the stable tool chain using the
+async-trait crate from crates.io.
+Note that using these trait methods will result in a heap allocation
+per-function-call. This is not a significant cost for the vast majority
+of applications, but should be considered when deciding whether to use
+this functionality in the public API of a low-level function that is expected
+to be called millions of times a second.
+
+Rust currently provides only the bare essentials for writing async code.
+Importantly, executors, tasks, reactors, combinators, and low-level I/O futures and traits
+are not yet provided in the standard library. In the meantime,
+community-provided async ecosystems fill in these gaps.
+The Async Foundations Team is interested in extending examples in the Async Book to cover multiple runtimes.
+If you're interested in contributing to this project, please reach out to us on
+Zulip.
+
+Async runtimes are libraries used for executing async applications.
+Runtimes usually bundle together a reactor with one or more executors.
+Reactors provide subscription mechanisms for external events, like async I/O, interprocess communication, and timers.
+In an async runtime, subscribers are typically futures representing low-level I/O operations.
+Executors handle the scheduling and execution of tasks.
+They keep track of running and suspended tasks, poll futures to completion, and wake tasks when they can make progress.
+The word "executor" is frequently used interchangeably with "runtime".
+Here, we use the word "ecosystem" to describe a runtime bundled with compatible traits and features.
+
+
+The futures crate contains traits and functions useful for writing async code.
+This includes the Stream, Sink, AsyncRead, and AsyncWrite traits, and utilities such as combinators.
+These utilities and traits may eventually become part of the standard library.
+futures has its own executor, but not its own reactor, so it does not support execution of async I/O or timer futures.
+For this reason, it's not considered a full runtime.
+A common choice is to use utilities from futures with an executor from another crate.
+
+There is no asynchronous runtime in the standard library, and none are officially recommended.
+The following crates provide popular runtimes.
+
+- Tokio: A popular async ecosystem with HTTP, gRPC, and tracing frameworks.
+- async-std: A crate that provides asynchronous counterparts to standard library components.
+- smol: A small, simplified async runtime.
+Provides the
Async trait that can be used to wrap structs like UnixStream or TcpListener.
+- fuchsia-async:
+An executor for use in the Fuchsia OS.
+
+
+Not all async applications, frameworks, and libraries are compatible with each other, or with every OS or platform.
+Most async code can be used with any ecosystem, but some frameworks and libraries require the use of a specific ecosystem.
+Ecosystem constraints are not always documented, but there are several rules of thumb to determine
+whether a library, trait, or function depends on a specific ecosystem.
+Any async code that interacts with async I/O, timers, interprocess communication, or tasks
+generally depends on a specific async executor or reactor.
+All other async code, such as async expressions, combinators, synchronization types, and streams
+are usually ecosystem independent, provided that any nested futures are also ecosystem independent.
+Before beginning a project, it's recommended to research relevant async frameworks and libraries to ensure
+compatibility with your chosen runtime and with each other.
+Notably, Tokio uses the mio reactor and defines its own versions of async I/O traits,
+including AsyncRead and AsyncWrite.
+On its own, it's not compatible with async-std and smol,
+which rely on the async-executor crate, and the AsyncRead and AsyncWrite
+traits defined in futures.
+Conflicting runtime requirements can sometimes be resolved by compatibility layers
+that allow you to call code written for one runtime within another.
+For example, the async_compat crate provides a compatibility layer between
+Tokio and other runtimes.
+Libraries exposing async APIs should not depend on a specific executor or reactor,
+unless they need to spawn tasks or define their own async I/O or timer futures.
+Ideally, only binaries should be responsible for scheduling and running tasks.
+
+Async executors can be single-threaded or multi-threaded.
+For example, the async-executor crate has both a single-threaded LocalExecutor and a multi-threaded Executor.
+A multi-threaded executor makes progress on several tasks simultaneously.
+It can speed up the execution greatly for workloads with many tasks,
+but synchronizing data between tasks is usually more expensive.
+It is recommended to measure performance for your application
+when you are choosing between a single- and a multi-threaded runtime.
+Tasks can either be run on the thread that created them or on a separate thread.
+Async runtimes often provide functionality for spawning tasks onto separate threads.
+Even if tasks are executed on separate threads, they should still be non-blocking.
+In order to schedule tasks on a multi-threaded executor, they must also be Send.
+Some runtimes provide functions for spawning non-Send tasks,
+which ensures every task is executed on the thread that spawned it.
+They may also provide functions for spawning blocking tasks onto dedicated threads,
+which is useful for running blocking synchronous code from other libraries.
+
+In this chapter, we'll use asynchronous Rust to modify the Rust book's
+single-threaded web server
+to serve requests concurrently.
+
+Here's what the code looked like at the end of the lesson.
+src/main.rs:
+use std::fs;
+use std::io::prelude::*;
+use std::net::TcpListener;
+use std::net::TcpStream;
+
+fn main() {
+ // Listen for incoming TCP connections on localhost port 7878
+ let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap();
+
+ // Block forever, handling each request that arrives at this IP address
+ for stream in listener.incoming() {
+ let stream = stream.unwrap();
+
+ handle_connection(stream);
+ }
+}
+
+fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) {
+ // Read the first 1024 bytes of data from the stream
+ let mut buffer = [0; 1024];
+ stream.read(&mut buffer).unwrap();
+
+ let get = b"GET / HTTP/1.1\r\n";
+
+ // Respond with greetings or a 404,
+ // depending on the data in the request
+ let (status_line, filename) = if buffer.starts_with(get) {
+ ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK\r\n\r\n", "hello.html")
+ } else {
+ ("HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND\r\n\r\n", "404.html")
+ };
+ let contents = fs::read_to_string(filename).unwrap();
+
+ // Write response back to the stream,
+ // and flush the stream to ensure the response is sent back to the client
+ let response = format!("{status_line}{contents}");
+ stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap();
+ stream.flush().unwrap();
+}
+hello.html:
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+<html lang="en">
+ <head>
+ <meta charset="utf-8">
+ <title>Hello!</title>
+ </head>
+ <body>
+ <h1>Hello!</h1>
+ <p>Hi from Rust</p>
+ </body>
+</html>
+
+404.html:
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+<html lang="en">
+ <head>
+ <meta charset="utf-8">
+ <title>Hello!</title>
+ </head>
+ <body>
+ <h1>Oops!</h1>
+ <p>Sorry, I don't know what you're asking for.</p>
+ </body>
+</html>
+
+If you run the server with cargo run and visit 127.0.0.1:7878 in your browser,
+you'll be greeted with a friendly message from Ferris!
+
+An HTTP server should be able to serve multiple clients concurrently;
+that is, it should not wait for previous requests to complete before handling the current request.
+The book
+solves this problem
+by creating a thread pool where each connection is handled on its own thread.
+Here, instead of improving throughput by adding threads, we'll achieve the same effect using asynchronous code.
+Let's modify handle_connection to return a future by declaring it an async fn:
+async fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) {
+ //<-- snip -->
+}
+Adding async to the function declaration changes its return type
+from the unit type () to a type that implements Future<Output=()>.
+If we try to compile this, the compiler warns us that it will not work:
+$ cargo check
+ Checking async-rust v0.1.0 (file:///projects/async-rust)
+warning: unused implementer of `std::future::Future` that must be used
+ --> src/main.rs:12:9
+ |
+12 | handle_connection(stream);
+ | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+ |
+ = note: `#[warn(unused_must_use)]` on by default
+ = note: futures do nothing unless you `.await` or poll them
+
+Because we haven't awaited or polled the result of handle_connection,
+it'll never run. If you run the server and visit 127.0.0.1:7878 in a browser,
+you'll see that the connection is refused; our server is not handling requests.
+We can't await or poll futures within synchronous code by itself.
+We'll need an asynchronous runtime to handle scheduling and running futures to completion.
+Please consult the section on choosing a runtime
+for more information on asynchronous runtimes, executors, and reactors.
+Any of the runtimes listed will work for this project, but for these examples,
+we've chosen to use the async-std crate.
+
+The following example will demonstrate refactoring synchronous code to use an async runtime; here, async-std.
+The #[async_std::main] attribute from async-std allows us to write an asynchronous main function.
+To use it, enable the attributes feature of async-std in Cargo.toml:
+[dependencies.async-std]
+version = "1.6"
+features = ["attributes"]
+
+As a first step, we'll switch to an asynchronous main function,
+and await the future returned by the async version of handle_connection.
+Then, we'll test how the server responds.
+Here's what that would look like:
+#[async_std::main]
+async fn main() {
+ let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap();
+ for stream in listener.incoming() {
+ let stream = stream.unwrap();
+ // Warning: This is not concurrent!
+ handle_connection(stream).await;
+ }
+}
+Now, let's test to see if our server can handle connections concurrently.
+Simply making handle_connection asynchronous doesn't mean that the server
+can handle multiple connections at the same time, and we'll soon see why.
+To illustrate this, let's simulate a slow request.
+When a client makes a request to 127.0.0.1:7878/sleep,
+our server will sleep for 5 seconds:
+use std::time::Duration;
+use async_std::task;
+
+async fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) {
+ let mut buffer = [0; 1024];
+ stream.read(&mut buffer).unwrap();
+
+ let get = b"GET / HTTP/1.1\r\n";
+ let sleep = b"GET /sleep HTTP/1.1\r\n";
+
+ let (status_line, filename) = if buffer.starts_with(get) {
+ ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK\r\n\r\n", "hello.html")
+ } else if buffer.starts_with(sleep) {
+ task::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)).await;
+ ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK\r\n\r\n", "hello.html")
+ } else {
+ ("HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND\r\n\r\n", "404.html")
+ };
+ let contents = fs::read_to_string(filename).unwrap();
+
+ let response = format!("{status_line}{contents}");
+ stream.write(response.as_bytes()).unwrap();
+ stream.flush().unwrap();
+}
+This is very similar to the
+simulation of a slow request
+from the Book, but with one important difference:
+we're using the non-blocking function async_std::task::sleep instead of the blocking function std::thread::sleep.
+It's important to remember that even if a piece of code is run within an async fn and awaited, it may still block.
+To test whether our server handles connections concurrently, we'll need to ensure that handle_connection is non-blocking.
+If you run the server, you'll see that a request to 127.0.0.1:7878/sleep
+will block any other incoming requests for 5 seconds!
+This is because there are no other concurrent tasks that can make progress
+while we are awaiting the result of handle_connection.
+In the next section, we'll see how to use async code to handle connections concurrently.
+
+The problem with our code so far is that listener.incoming() is a blocking iterator.
+The executor can't run other futures while listener waits on incoming connections,
+and we can't handle a new connection until we're done with the previous one.
+In order to fix this, we'll transform listener.incoming() from a blocking Iterator
+to a non-blocking Stream. Streams are similar to Iterators, but can be consumed asynchronously.
+For more information, see the chapter on Streams.
+Let's replace our blocking std::net::TcpListener with the non-blocking async_std::net::TcpListener,
+and update our connection handler to accept an async_std::net::TcpStream:
+use async_std::prelude::*;
+
+async fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) {
+ let mut buffer = [0; 1024];
+ stream.read(&mut buffer).await.unwrap();
+
+ //<-- snip -->
+ stream.write(response.as_bytes()).await.unwrap();
+ stream.flush().await.unwrap();
+}
+The asynchronous version of TcpListener implements the Stream trait for listener.incoming(),
+a change which provides two benefits.
+The first is that listener.incoming() no longer blocks the executor.
+The executor can now yield to other pending futures
+while there are no incoming TCP connections to be processed.
+The second benefit is that elements from the Stream can optionally be processed concurrently,
+using a Stream's for_each_concurrent method.
+Here, we'll take advantage of this method to handle each incoming request concurrently.
+We'll need to import the Stream trait from the futures crate, so our Cargo.toml now looks like this:
++[dependencies]
++futures = "0.3"
+
+ [dependencies.async-std]
+ version = "1.6"
+ features = ["attributes"]
+
+Now, we can handle each connection concurrently by passing handle_connection in through a closure function.
+The closure function takes ownership of each TcpStream, and is run as soon as a new TcpStream becomes available.
+As long as handle_connection does not block, a slow request will no longer prevent other requests from completing.
+use async_std::net::TcpListener;
+use async_std::net::TcpStream;
+use futures::stream::StreamExt;
+
+#[async_std::main]
+async fn main() {
+ let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").await.unwrap();
+ listener
+ .incoming()
+ .for_each_concurrent(/* limit */ None, |tcpstream| async move {
+ let tcpstream = tcpstream.unwrap();
+ handle_connection(tcpstream).await;
+ })
+ .await;
+}
+
+Our example so far has largely presented concurrency (using async code)
+as an alternative to parallelism (using threads).
+However, async code and threads are not mutually exclusive.
+In our example, for_each_concurrent processes each connection concurrently, but on the same thread.
+The async-std crate allows us to spawn tasks onto separate threads as well.
+Because handle_connection is both Send and non-blocking, it's safe to use with async_std::task::spawn.
+Here's what that would look like:
+use async_std::task::spawn;
+
+#[async_std::main]
+async fn main() {
+ let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").await.unwrap();
+ listener
+ .incoming()
+ .for_each_concurrent(/* limit */ None, |stream| async move {
+ let stream = stream.unwrap();
+ spawn(handle_connection(stream));
+ })
+ .await;
+}
+Now we are using both concurrency and parallelism to handle multiple requests at the same time!
+See the section on multithreaded executors
+for more information.
+
+Let's move on to testing our handle_connection function.
+First, we need a TcpStream to work with.
+In an end-to-end or integration test, we might want to make a real TCP connection
+to test our code.
+One strategy for doing this is to start a listener on localhost port 0.
+Port 0 isn't a valid UNIX port, but it'll work for testing.
+The operating system will pick an open TCP port for us.
+Instead, in this example we'll write a unit test for the connection handler,
+to check that the correct responses are returned for the respective inputs.
+To keep our unit test isolated and deterministic, we'll replace the TcpStream with a mock.
+First, we'll change the signature of handle_connection to make it easier to test.
+handle_connection doesn't actually require an async_std::net::TcpStream;
+it requires any struct that implements async_std::io::Read, async_std::io::Write, and marker::Unpin.
+Changing the type signature to reflect this allows us to pass a mock for testing.
+use async_std::io::{Read, Write};
+
+async fn handle_connection(mut stream: impl Read + Write + Unpin) {
+Next, let's build a mock TcpStream that implements these traits.
+First, let's implement the Read trait, with one method, poll_read.
+Our mock TcpStream will contain some data that is copied into the read buffer,
+and we'll return Poll::Ready to signify that the read is complete.
+ use super::*;
+ use futures::io::Error;
+ use futures::task::{Context, Poll};
+
+ use std::cmp::min;
+ use std::pin::Pin;
+
+ struct MockTcpStream {
+ read_data: Vec<u8>,
+ write_data: Vec<u8>,
+ }
+
+ impl Read for MockTcpStream {
+ fn poll_read(
+ self: Pin<&mut Self>,
+ _: &mut Context,
+ buf: &mut [u8],
+ ) -> Poll<Result<usize, Error>> {
+ let size: usize = min(self.read_data.len(), buf.len());
+ buf[..size].copy_from_slice(&self.read_data[..size]);
+ Poll::Ready(Ok(size))
+ }
+ }
+Our implementation of Write is very similar,
+although we'll need to write three methods: poll_write, poll_flush, and poll_close.
+poll_write will copy any input data into the mock TcpStream, and return Poll::Ready when complete.
+No work needs to be done to flush or close the mock TcpStream, so poll_flush and poll_close
+can just return Poll::Ready.
+ impl Write for MockTcpStream {
+ fn poll_write(
+ mut self: Pin<&mut Self>,
+ _: &mut Context,
+ buf: &[u8],
+ ) -> Poll<Result<usize, Error>> {
+ self.write_data = Vec::from(buf);
+
+ Poll::Ready(Ok(buf.len()))
+ }
+
+ fn poll_flush(self: Pin<&mut Self>, _: &mut Context) -> Poll<Result<(), Error>> {
+ Poll::Ready(Ok(()))
+ }
+
+ fn poll_close(self: Pin<&mut Self>, _: &mut Context) -> Poll<Result<(), Error>> {
+ Poll::Ready(Ok(()))
+ }
+ }
+Lastly, our mock will need to implement Unpin, signifying that its location in memory can safely be moved.
+For more information on pinning and the Unpin trait, see the section on pinning.
+ impl Unpin for MockTcpStream {}
+Now we're ready to test the handle_connection function.
+After setting up the MockTcpStream containing some initial data,
+we can run handle_connection using the attribute #[async_std::test], similarly to how we used #[async_std::main].
+To ensure that handle_connection works as intended, we'll check that the correct data
+was written to the MockTcpStream based on its initial contents.
+ use std::fs;
+
+ #[async_std::test]
+ async fn test_handle_connection() {
+ let input_bytes = b"GET / HTTP/1.1\r\n";
+ let mut contents = vec![0u8; 1024];
+ contents[..input_bytes.len()].clone_from_slice(input_bytes);
+ let mut stream = MockTcpStream {
+ read_data: contents,
+ write_data: Vec::new(),
+ };
+
+ handle_connection(&mut stream).await;
+
+ let expected_contents = fs::read_to_string("hello.html").unwrap();
+ let expected_response = format!("HTTP/1.1 200 OK\r\n\r\n{}", expected_contents);
+ assert!(stream.write_data.starts_with(expected_response.as_bytes()));
+ }
+
+For resources in languages other than English.
+
+
+ 